Think of India’s education system like a house with many floors. But here is the twist — this house was designed by different architects at different times, and they did not always talk to each other.
The foundation: primary and elementary education (ages 6–14)
This is the floor that matters most, and the one most troubled. Under the Right to Education Act, 2009, every child between 6 and 14 has a fundamental right to free and compulsory education in a neighbourhood school. This is not just a policy promise. It is a constitutional right, backed by Article 21A (added by the 86th Amendment in 2002).
Here is a number that tells a story: India’s Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) at the primary level is nearly 100 per cent. Almost every child is enrolled. Sounds like a success, right? Now look at the ASER (Annual Status of Education Report) data: in ASER 2023, roughly 25 per cent of children in Class 5 still could not read a Class 2 level text fluently, and about half of Class 5 students could not do basic division.
So the children are in school — but they are not learning. This is India’s deepest education crisis. It is not an access problem any more. It is a learning outcomes problem.
The middle floor: secondary education (ages 14–18)
This is where the dropout crisis lives. India’s GER at the secondary level (Classes 9–12) drops sharply compared with elementary. Many students — especially girls, rural children, and children from SC and ST families — leave school after Class 8. The reasons are predictable but painful: poverty (children need to earn), distance (no secondary school nearby), poor quality (what is the point of attending if you are not learning?), and social norms (girls are married off, or expected to do household work).
NEP 2020 aims to fix this by extending the Right to Education up to age 18 (currently it covers only up to 14) — but this expansion has not been legislated yet.
The upper floor: higher education
India has one of the world’s largest higher education systems: over 1,100 universities, 43,000-plus colleges, and about 4 crore students enrolled. The GER in higher education reached about 28.4 per cent in 2023-24 — far below the NEP 2020 target of 50 per cent by 2035.
The problem with higher education is not just size — it is quality. India has only a handful of globally competitive institutions. The IITs, IIMs, AIIMS and a few central universities are islands of excellence in an ocean of mediocrity. Most state universities and affiliated colleges suffer from poor infrastructure, outdated curricula, faculty shortages and a rote-learning culture.
NEP 2020 wants to transform this through multidisciplinary education, a new regulatory framework (replacing UGC, AICTE and NCTE with a single Higher Education Commission of India, HECI), and greater autonomy for colleges. But implementation is slow.
The parallel track: skill development and vocational education
This is the track that gets the least respect — but matters the most for employment. In most developed countries, 40–60 per cent of secondary students are in vocational streams. In India, the figure is less than 5 per cent.
The reason is cultural: in India, “vocational” is seen as second-class. Everyone wants a BA or BE degree, even if it does not lead to a job. Meanwhile there is a massive shortage of skilled workers — plumbers, electricians, welders, CNC operators — in the market.
The government has tried to fix this through the Skill India Mission (2015), Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas Yojana (PMKVY), the National Skill Development Corporation (NSDC), and the National Skills Qualifications Framework (NSQF). NEP 2020 integrates vocational education from Class 6 onwards. But the stigma persists.